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2014年11月29日 星期六

第四節 活性氧種類和選擇性抗氧化

活性氧是含有氧原子並且氧化或還原能力很強的數十種物質的總稱,其中有代表性的為超氧陰離子,羥自由基,過氧脂基和一氧化氮等,它們都屬自由基;另外一些活性氧,如過氧化氫,脂過氧化物;次氯酸和過氧亞硝酸等則是普通分子。



一、活性氧的來源
活性氧在體內的生成方式有很多種,主要的途徑有:
1.黃嘌呤氧化酶
黃嘌呤氧化酶可催化黃嘌呤或次黃嘌呤氧化反應,同時生成超氧陰離子。其中次黃嘌呤被兩分子氧氣氧化產生黃嘌呤,同時生成兩分子超氧陰離子;黃嘌呤被一分子氧氣氧化產生尿酸,同時生成一分子超氧陰離子。

2.蛋白激酶C
蛋白激酶C(PKC)可催化NADPH與一分子氧氣產生氧化反應產生NADP+,同時生成兩分子超氧陰離子。

3.髓過氧化物酶
中性粒細胞的溶酶體內含大量髓過氧化物酶(MPO)。當中性粒細胞激活時,溶酶體釋放MPO,MPO可催化過氧化氫與滷化物反應,產生次滷酸,次滷酸與超氧陰離子反應,產生羥自由基。

4.一氧化氮合成酶
一氧化氮合成酶(NOS)廣泛分布在血管內皮細胞、血小板、神經組織細胞等處,NOS可催化L-精氨酸氧化反應,並同時生成一氧化氮和胍氨酸。

上述反應可以看作活性氧產生的源頭反應,當這些活性氣產生後,可在另外一些酶的催化下,或直接發生繼發反應,產生其他類型的活性氧。但如,在SOD的催化下,超氧陰離子可發生自身氧化還原(歧化)反應,產生過氧化氫。在二價鐵離子存在的情況下,過氧化氫可以被氧化成羥自由基。
從某種意義上講,生物體內活性氧的產生源頭是氧氣,沒有氧氣幾乎就沒有活性氧產生的可能,由於氧氣是需氧生物生存的基礎,那麼活性氧產生就是需氧生物的必然結果。也可以這樣說,活性氧是需氧生命現象的必然伴隨現象,沒有活性氧,或是沒有氧氣,也就沒有需氧生物。


二、活性氧的類型
活性氧的類型非常多,簡單地羅列並沒有什麼幫助,但對活性氧進行適當劃分有助於全面了解其作用。按照是否屬於自由基劃分,可分為自由基活性氧和非自由基活性氧。自由基活性氧包括超氧陰離子、羥自由基、一氧化氮等;非自由基活性氧包括過氧化氫,次鹹酸等。按照是否含有氮元素,可分成活性氧和活性氮。因此,活性氮也是活性氧。
如果按照毒性或是活性進行劃分,可以把活性氧分成三類,第一類是具有信號作用為主的活性氧,例如一氧化氮、超氧陰離子和過氧化氫,這類活性氧的特點是毒性作用只有在濃度非常高,或者轉化成毒性強的活性氧的情況下才會出現,在正常生理情況下是作為功能分子發揮信號調節作用。第二類是以毒性分子為主的活性氧,例如羥自由基,亞硝酸陰離子和次氯酸等,這些活性氧活性非常強,在體內的濃度低,一旦大量產生,就會對機體造成傷害。許多非毒性活性氧的毒性作用實際上是經過轉化成這類毒性活性氧才會發生,例如一氧化氮和超氧陰離子反應可產生亞硝酸陰離子;超氧陰離子和過氧化氫可在金屬離子存在的情況下轉化成羥基自由基。第三類是既沒有信號作用,也沒有毒性作用的活性氧,主要包括生物大分子與上述活性氧反應產生的繼發產物,主要是由於這些物質的含量比較低,不足以產生明顯的信號或毒性效應。當然,另外一個原因有可能是這些物質受到人們關注比較少,有些作用沒有被發現。根據這個分類,我們可以重新認識活性氧,甚至應該重新評價過去抗氧化治療的策略,就是不應該以干擾正常生理功能為代價,過分清除活性氧,特別是對正常人,更不應該使用各類具有強還原作用的維生素、藥物或食品進行所謂的抗氧化保健。大量研究表明,長期使用各類具有抗氧化作用的維生素不僅不能發揮抗衰老、抗腫瘤的作用,而且有可能具有促進衰老和腫瘤的作用。


三、活性氧的含量和半衰期
正常情況下,機體在代謝過程中不斷產生自由基,例如重要的氧化磷酸化過程就是典型的自由基反應,因此自由基反應是生命現象的重要基礎。在自由基反應過程中,一些中間產物,往往是自由基,會從反應中釋放到周圍,而這些自由基再經過轉化,就形成了一定濃度和種類的活性氧。
對生物體內不同類型的活性氧,人們常借助氧氣的代謝來描述。氧氣在身體細胞內主要的代謝方式是促進氧化磷酸化過程,在這一經典的作用中,氧氣在細胞色素C還原酶的作用,將氧化磷酸化上游的電子傳遞鏈輸送來的4個電子同時給1個氧分子,結合2個氫離子形成水。也可以簡化為,1個氧分子同時獲得4個電子被還原成水。但在細胞內有2%~3%氧氣不是獲得4個電子,而是只獲得1個電子(不是2個),就把氧氣變成了超氧陰離子。這種情況廣泛發生在線粒體氧化磷酸化過程中的電子泄露,例如還原性輔酶Q直接還原氧氣分子,也可以發生在細胞膜上的氧化酶催化的利用NADPH提供電子還原氧氣分子。超氧陰離子是一種典型的自由基,也是一種離子,由於離子不能自由穿過細胞膜,容易導致局部濃度過高,當局部超氧陰離子濃度過高時,就可以引起氧化損傷。
在長期的進化過程中,細胞內所有可產生超氧陰離子的部分都具有產生SOD的作用,SOD能夠迅速把超氧陰離子催化成過氧化氫,而過氧化氫是脂溶性分子,可以自由穿過細胞膜,這樣的改變意義就是可以減少局部超氧陰離子過高時引起氧化損傷,發揮一定的解毒或抗氧化作用,其本質是利用過氧化氫的擴散能力通過降低局部濃度實現。由於細胞內SOD的分布廣泛,活性比較強,這造成細胞內過氧化氫的濃度是超氧陰離子1000倍。因為從濃度的角度考慮,在組織細胞內,過氧化氫是活性氧的真正代表。細胞內也存在可以使過氧化氫繼續改變的酶,例如過氧化氫酶可以將過氧化氫轉變成水和氧氣,這樣就可實現把超氧陰離子,經過過氧化氫,最終轉變成水和氧氣的完美解毒過程。不過在組織細胞發生缺氧或炎症的病理狀況下,細胞內會出現過多游離的金屬離子,例如鐵或銅,在鐵或銅離子存在的情況下,過氧化氫會變成具有超級活性的羥自由基,而這種羥自由基是必然引起氧化損傷的自由基類型。某些細胞,例如巨噬細胞在發生炎症反應時,不僅可產生大量超氧陰離子,同時會因為誘導型一氧化氮合酶的激活產生大量一氧化氮,而超氧陰離子和一氧化氮結合會變成另一個毒性強的亞硝酸陰離子。
由於第一類活性氧的氧化作用比較弱,相對不活潑,在身體的濃度往往比較高,例如一氧化氮和過氧化氫的濃度都可以達到10-9 mol/L。比較特殊的是超氧陰離子,由於細胞內存在大量SOD,導致其濃度為10-12 mol/L。而毒性強大的第二類活性氧羥自由基等濃度極低,一般的檢測手段無法檢測(表5-1)。


表5-1:不同活性氧的半衰期和生理濃度

根據上述關於自由基和活性氧的闡述,我們知道,自由基或活性氧首先是對機體有利的功能分子,當在缺血,炎症等某些疾病狀態下,自由基或活性氧過度增加,特別是毒性強的自由基增加更明顯,並引起氧化損傷。這是許多疾病的重要病理生理學基礎,而動員內源性抗氧化能力是有效減少氧化損傷,從而治療許多疾病的潛在手段。
目前學術界認為,氫氣治療疾病的主要原因是選擇性抗氧化作用,其主要依據是根據氫氣可以中和羥自由基和亞硝酸陰離子等毒性強的自由基,但不影響具有生物活性的一氧化氮,過氧化氫和超氧陰離子等(圖5-1)。最近幾年,關於氫分子生物學效應機制的研究不斷深入,許多學者根據研究結果提出各種作用機制,例如信號分子假說認為氫氣跟一氧化氮等信號氣體分子一樣,是第四種氣體信號分子,但該假說的主要依據是氫氣可以影響一些重要的信號通路,但沒有明確氫氣影響這些信號途徑的分子細節。也有學者根據氫氣對某些基因表達有影響提出氫氣具有基因調節效應,這方面的證據也不全面,總之,關於氫分子生物學效應的作用機制,儘管存在許多疑問和缺陷,氫氣的選擇性抗氧化作用仍是被學術界普遍接受的觀點。


表5-2:不同活性氧的半衰期和生理濃度
氫氣可以中和羥自由基和亞硝酸陰離子,但不影響具有信號作用一氧化氮、過氧化氫和超氧陰離子等活性氧


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